An Cosantóir

www.military.ie THE DEFENCE FORCES MAGAZINE | 21 local populations that they are mandated to protect. As EU military operations have developed over time, they have oper- ated within well-defined institutional and decision making structures, but they have also generated their own informal practices and norms. While the processes giving rise to EU force generation do not easily lend themselves to the creation of institutional memory, the underlying structures of the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy/Vice-President of the Commission (HR/VP), the Politi- cal Security Committee, the European External Action Service (EEAS), the EU Military Committee and EU Military Staff etc., are generating key sets of assumptions and norms deriving from the practice of EU crisis management. A key corollary question is thus whether these too are consistent with consid- erations of international justice. The EU is frequently presented – and often presents itself – as a global actor promoting universal values and international justice. In crisis management this is frequently adduced as resting on the aforementioned three principles of consent, non-coercion and impartiality. However, whether these principles, individually or in concert, truly represent justice is open to interrogation and this can perhaps be well illustrated in looking at the case of the EU's 2008-2009 intervention in Chad and the Central African Republic. This was one of the largest EU military operations to date, inter alia deploy- ing combat units in support of its mission objectives which included those of protecting civilians in danger, improving local security to facilitate the delivery of humanitarian aid and the free movement of humanitarian aid workers, protecting United Nations (UN) personnel, premises, installations and equipment, and ensuring the security and freedom of move- ment of its own personnel. This paper will first outline a model for the consideration of justice in security and crisis management that derives from the GLOBUS research programme. Three understandings of justice are considered; justice as non-domination, justice as impartiality and justice as mutual recognition. In each case, the paper will briefly map out the implications of each of these understandings of justice for security and crisis management operations; highlighting necessary assumptions and implica- tions in each case for EU military operations. The paper will then move on to a detailed consideration of the 2008-2009 EUFOR Tchad/RCA operation and therein to identify which, if any, of these assumptions/implications are evident. To finish, the paper will offer conclusions as to how, in what degree and to what ends this EU military operation might be considered to have been just, and what lessons might have been learned – and which might yet be learned – in the pursuit of interna- tional justice through the use of military forces. GLOBUS AND THREE UNDERSTANDINGS OF JUSTICE Of course, determining what is 'just' is problematic from the outset (Tomić and Tonra 2018). As noted above, this paper follows Eriksen's (2016) three conceptions of global justice: justice as non-domi- nation, justice as impartiality and justice as mutual recognition. These are grounded in an understand- ing of global justice which is rooted in questions of power and structure: where obvious asymmetries of status give rise to dynamics of domination. Each of the aforementioned understandings of global justice highlight different paths to what might be understood as 'just' outcomes and offers a degree of internal consistency in modelling what a 'just' international system might look like. Each, however, also reveals serious dilemmas and – while not mutually exclusive in their application – poses stark political and ethical choices. JUSTICE AS NON-DOMINATION Eriksen (2016: 7), defines injustice as 'subjection and rule without justification' with inequality, vulnerability and humili- ation all key indicators of dominance. When applied to the global community of states, such justice concerns arise both within and between states and centre on the (ab)use of power in unequal relationships. Justice in this context can then be understood as non-domination of one by another (Petit 2010), giving rise to a security of status or 'standing' arising from the mutual agreement of equal actors. At the international level then, justice implies 'a claim to respect the integrity and sovereignty of states and their [respective] systems for protecting rights' (Eriksen 2016: 14). Such an understanding of global justice necessarily leads to a focus on strengthening the system of Westphalian states and underpinning structures of global governance which reinforce state sovereignty. Critically, it obviates the notion of states having rights, responsibilities or obligations beyond their own borders. Non-interference in the sovereign affairs of other states also becomes an over-riding principle but leaves open paths to collective action in support of states' rights and sovereignty. In terms of security and crisis management, what does such an approach to global justice imply? Clearly, support of state sovereignty is central and therefore collective security ar- rangements and effective global structures to address threats to state sovereignty are relevant. Where states face internal security threats from third parties, the capacity and willing- ness of the international community to come to the aid of a state so threatened would also be significant. Beyond these basics there is also scope for significant action in offsetting inequalities in power. There could, for example, be attention given to designing global structures dedicated to strengthen-

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